It is human nature to seek explanation of that for which there is no known or obvious cause or that which we do not understand.  When rational, scientific, or earthly explanations fail, the demons, devils, and evil spirits which populate the supernatural and magical realms were blamed for all manner of tzuris (trouble). The Evil Eye (Ayin Ha'ra) has the honor of being the impetus for all manner of unwanted spiritual attention. (Trachtenberg) Evidence for the use of amulets, talismans, incantations, and rituals by Jews throughout the Middle Ages (c. 500-1600 CE) to prevent or counteract the Ayin Ha’ra can be found in magic formulae and Rabbinic opinion in Jewish literature and is also supported by archeological finds.  

The Middle Ages were widely populated  across cultures, countries, and centuries by superstitions, fairies, demons, and evil spirits. The Babylonian Talmud (BT), circa 500 CE, acknowledged their existence and their fearsomeness: "Their numbers outweigh the number of humans on earth. If men were able to see them, none could stand the sight."(BT Berakhot 6a). Thomas Aquinas cites the 10th/11th century Persian philosopher, Avicenna , in his  affirmation of its power in his work Summa Theologica, written 1265–1274, where he states,

Avicenna assigns the cause of bewitchment to the fact that corporeal matter has a natural

tendency to obey spiritual substance rather than natural contrary agents. Therefore when the soul

is of strong imagination, it can change corporeal matter. This he says is the cause of the "Evil Eye."

(Aquinas, 1790)             

Avicenna’s explanation of the workings of the “Evil Eye” were still being discussed and upheld in theory by 16th century philosopher Andrea Cattani.(Hankins, 122-5) Mention of it is also made in the Torah (Proverbs 23:6), the Koran (Surah al Falaq 113), Shakespeare (Romeo and Juliet, Act 3, Scene 2), and medieval poetry like the works of Italian poet Jacopo Sannazaro (1458-1530) who wrote “L'invidia, figliuol mio, se stessa macera, e si dilegua come agnel per fascino ché non gli giova ombra di pino o d’acera.” (Envy, my son, wears herself away, and droops like a lamb under the influence of the Evil Eye when no shade is given by the pine or maple.)

It is well documented that historically Jews have been subjected many times to sumptuary laws, expulsions, and executions. Like their Christian and Pagan neighbors, the Jews of the Middle Ages were also tormented by plagues and personal tzuris like poverty, illness, bad marriages, and disrespectful offspring and were just as willing to believe such problems originated from supernatural evils. Rabbi Yehuda ben Samuel of Regensberg, a 13th-century German Jew, offered the following advice in a treatise entitled Sefer Chasidim (The Book of the Pious): "If a sorcerer or a witch demands anything of you, don't hesitate to give them a coin or two so that they shall not bewitch you, just as you would make a present to the demons or to a maniac to forestall their doing you some harm" and wise counsel regarding superstitions: “One should not believe in superstitions, but it is best to be heedful of them.”

Judaism considers the Evil Eye to be very real and references to it can be found in many sources of Jewish literature (BT Brachot 20a & b, 55b; Zohar-Bireshit, Pequdei 225A). The belief in the Ayin Ha’ra is even documented in the Old Testament: "Eat not the bread of him that hath an Evil Eye, neither desire his dainty meats."(Proverbs 23:6) 

Rabbi Solomon ben Isaac, aka Rashi (1040-1150, France), a well-known Medieval Talmudist, in his commentary on Exodus 30:12, explained that directly counting the number of persons present in a gathering or population was likely to inflict an "Evil Eye" upon the group; and to this day observant Jews are reluctant to count heads. 

The Zohar is a collection of books first published in Spain in the 13th century that contains mystical commentary on the Torah and is central to the study of Jewish mysticism or  Kabbalah.(Ratzabi) The Ayin Ha’ra is referenced by the Zohar thirty-five times.(Simon) Kabbalah is neither dark nor sinister, nor does it confer any implication of evil. Because of its perceived great power, by the end of the Middle Ages it was only taught one-on-one; only by teachers of high moral standard with prior rabbinic learning, mental and emotional stability; and only to married Jewish men over 40 years of age who were deemed to have the maturity and spiritual depth to handle mysticism's power.(Telushkin) Kabbalah is divided into three categories: (1) Theoretical - the inner dimensions of reality: spirit realms, souls, angels, etc; (2) Meditative - training the student to achieve higher level meditative, even prophetic, states by employing the Divine names or letter permutations; and (3) Magical - able to alter and/or influence the course of nature by using amulets, the Divine names, incantations, or rituals.(Pinson)

Both Levi ben Gershon, aka Gersonides (1288-1344, France) and Rabbi Yitzhak Arama (15th century, Spain) wrote about eyes emitting evil vapors that would cause harm to that with which it came in contact. Rabbi Ovadia Seforno (1475-1550, Italy) upheld a common belief that calling attention to someone’s blessings gave G-d a reason to scrutinize them and perhaps find them deserving of Divine reproach.(Brody) 

Rabbi Moses ben Maimon, better known as Maimonides, disagreed with the more common and popular attitudes about the Evil Eye. He felt the scriptural admonitions against behaviors thought to invoke it were more appropriately legalistic, i.e., protective of basic rights like privacy (BT Hoshen Mishpat 378:5) or preventative against impulses like temptations or jealousy (BT Bava Metzia 30a). Despite Maimonides's belief, the Ayin Ha’ra remained embedded in Jewish culture.

In simple terms, the Evil Eye is not a demon or spirit. It is the belief harm can be done with a mere look – the casting of an Evil Eye. Most rabbis agree the Ayin Ha’ra is frequently the consequence of one’s own actions, words, or thoughts in regard to blessings or good fortune; the flaunting of such may provoke jealousy in others or may draw the attention of those, be they human or spiritual, who may then be desirous of doing harm.(Trachtenberg) If unable to avoid an Ayin Ha’ra, Jews of the Middle Ages turned to amulets, talismans, incantations, magic spells, potions, and rituals, many of which were based in Kabbalah.  

Just as there are two ways to incur the Evil Eye: (1) to call it upon one’s self or (2) to have it cast upon you, so too, are there two ways to fight against it: (1) preventive and (2) combative. Since the most likely method of succumbing to its influence is by exhibiting pride in or boasting of accomplishment, acquisition, or appearance, etc, the prevention of the Evil Eye is also under one’s own control and best accomplished by living a pious and humble life. The avoidance of boastful, prideful, or arrogant behavior; the disdainful disregard of others; or covetous, envious, or vengeful thoughts born of dissatisfaction will prevent the Evil Eye from being cast upon you and those with the power to cause evil will not be summoned or take note. If, however, one is unsuccessful at avoiding the Ayin Ha’ra, there are amulets or talismans, incantations, and rituals that may be invoked for protection and defense, many of which are based in Kabbalah.

And it shall come to pass, if ye shall hearken diligently unto my commandments which I command you this day to love the L-rd your G-d, and to serve him with all your heart and with all your soul,(D11:13) that I will give the rain of your land in its season, the former rain and the latter rain, that thou mayest gather in thy corn, and thy wine, and thine oil.(D11:14) And I will give grass in thy field for thy cattle, and thou shall eat and be satisfied.(D11:15) Take heed to yourselves, lest your heart be deceived, and ye turn aside, and serve other gods, and worship them;(D11:16) and the anger of the L-rd be kindled against you, and he shut up the heaven, that there be no rain, and that the land yield not her fruit; and ye perish quickly from off the good land which the L-rd giveth you.(D11:17) Therefore shall ye lay up these my words in your heart and in your soul; and ye shall bind them for a sign upon your land, and they shall be for frontlets between your eyes.(D11:18) And ye shall teach them your children, talking of them when thou sittest in thine house, and when thou walkest by the way, and when thou liest down and when thou risest up.(D11:19) And thou shall write them upon the doorposts of thine house, and upon thy gates:(D11:20) that your days may be multiplied, and the days of your children, upon the land which the L-rd sware unto your fathers to give them, as the days of heaven above the earth.(D11:21) 

The L-rd spake unto Moses, saying,(N15:37) Speak unto the children of Israel and bid them that they make them a fringe upon the corners of their garments throughout their generations, and that they put upon the fringe of each corner a cord of blue:(N15:38) and it shall be unto you for a fringe, that ye may look upon it, and remember all the commandments of the L-rd, and do them; and that ye go not about after your own heart and your own eyes, after which ye go astray:(N15:39) that ye may remember and do all my commandments, and be holy unto your G-d.(N15:40) I am the L-rd your G-d, who brought you out of the Land of Egypt, to be your G-d: I am the L-rd your G-d."(N15:41, Hertz)

Sometimes written amulets were illuminated, adding beauty and protective words, letters, names, and symbols. Names were believed to have power so the name(s) of G-d or the names of angels were added for extra measures of power and protection. The names of the archangels Gabriel, Michael, Raphael and Uriel were included on amulets intended to protect through the night, because it was common knowledge that night was a very dangerous time.(Trachtenberg) The text below from Sefer Raziel is an example of a tried and true all-purpose amulet against the Evil Eye, evil spirits, and all manner of misfortune. Take note of the abundance of name dropping.

"In the name of Shaddai, who created heaven and earth, and in the name of the angel Raphael, the memuneh in charge of this month, and by you, Smmel, Hngel, Vngsursh, Kndors, Ndmh, Kmiel, S‘ariel, Abrid, Gurid, memunim of the summer equinox, and by your Prince, Or‘anir, by the angel of the hour and the star, in the name of the L-rd, G-d of Israel, who rests upon the Cherubs, the great, mighty, and awesome G-d, yhvh ?ebaot is His name, and in Thy name, G-d of mercy, and by thy name, Adiriron, trustworthy healing-G-d, in whose hand are the heavenly and earthly households, and by the name yhvh, save me by this writing and by this amulet, written in the name of N son of N [mother's name]. Protect him in all his two hundred and forty-eight organs against imprisonment and against the two-edged sword. Help him, deliver him, save him, rescue him from evil men and evil speech, and from a harsh litigant, whether he be Jew or Gentile. Humble and bring low those who rise against him to do him evil by deed or by speech, by counsel or by thought. May all who seek his harm be overthrown, destroyed, humbled, afflicted, broken so that not a limb remains whole; may those who wish him ill be put to shame. Save him, deliver him from all sorcery, from all reverses, from poverty, from wicked men, from sudden death, from the evil effects of passion, from every sort of tribulation and disease. Grant him grace, and love, and mercy before the throne of G-d, and before all beings who behold him. Let the fear of him rest upon all creatures, as the mighty lion dreads the mightier mafgi‘a. I conjure N, son of N, in the name of Uriron and Adriron (sic). Praised be the L-rd forever. Amen and Amen."

One of the simplest and most used amulets against the Ayin Ha’ra is a red cord or ribbon. The Talmud mentions red tassels or ribbons hung between the eyes of a horse to protect it against the Ayin Ha’ra.(Trachtenberg) In “The Red String: The Cultural History of a Jewish Folk Symbol,” Dr. Elly Teman writes that the practice of wearing a red string has extensive documentation in the historical and ethnographical records of many cultures from China to Greece to Romania to the Dominican Republic and that in nearly every culture where the red string is found, it is claimed to protect against the Evil Eye and bad luck. But why red? 

Many explanations often reference the red color of the cord to the birthright, bloodshed, sacrifice, atonement, redemption, and, of course, protection.(Teman) The color red chosen is actually crimson and represents a special red thread that was used in the building of the first Temple in Jerusalem. The crimson thread was made by using a dye derived from a certain species of worm, one of the lowest forms of creation. Therefore the red ribbon represents humbleness and is supposed to instill in the wearer an attitude of humility – the best defense against the Ayin Ha’ra.

“And you shall inscribe them on the doorposts of your house and on your gates, so that your days and the days of your children may be prolonged upon the land which the L-rd swore to give to your fathers for as long as the heavens are above the earth.”(Deuteronomy 11:20-21) An object frequently endowed with the power of an amulet or talisman is the Mezuzah. The word Mezuzah literally means “doorpost,” and while rabbis have for centuries tried to emphasize the religious nature of Mezuzot (pl) by relating them strongly to Deuteronomy 6:9 and 11:13-21, they were most commonly accepted, especially during the superstitious and socially uncertain era of the Middle Ages, as talismans. According to the Tosafot and the Shulchan Aruch, the main function of the Mezuzah is to protect the house from evil, "the coat of arms in the knighthood of G-d."(Poltorak) The Mezuzah was thought to shield the occupants of a home from all manner of evil both while in the home and while away, expounding on Psalms 121:8, “G-d shall guard your going out and your coming in from now and forevermore.” During the Genoic period of the 1st and 2nd centuries, the Mezuzah’s reputation as a talisman was solidified even further by the addition of the name Shaddai on the back of the parchment containing the Scripture verses from Dueteronomy.(Trachtenberg) Shaddai, considered a powerful name of G-d and an acronym for “guardians of the gates of Israel,” was added to the back of the parchment in order to avoid corruption of the scripture. Throughout the Middle Ages the practice of increasing the Mezuzah’s power continued with the addition of many angel names, Psalms, benedictions, and amulet-type inscriptions to the back of the parchment. Meir of Rothenberg, a 13th-century German rabbi stated, "If Jews knew how serviceable the mezuzah is, they would not lightly disregard it. They may be assured that no demon can have power over a house upon which the mezuzah is properly affixed."(Trachtenberg) Rabbi Abba said Ii the Zohar (2:36), “In how many ways does the Blessed Holy One show His loving-kindness to His people! When a man builds a house; the Blessed Holy One says to him: ‘Write My Name and put it upon your door (mezuzah), and thou wilt sit inside your house and I will sit outside thy door and protect you!’” It is no wonder that Jews of the Middle Ages regarded the Mezuzah a legitimate talisman against the Ayin Ha’ra and other evils.

Another type of talisman known in the Middle Ages, also utilizing Deuteronomy 6:8 is Tefillin or phylacteries (Greek word for amulet, guard, protect). The word Tefillin comes from the root word tafel, which means a strong attachment. Tefillin bind us to G-d and his protection, and its power as a talisman was to strengthen that bond. Tefillin are two small black leather boxes, with straps by which they can be worn, that contain hand-scribed parchments of the four biblical verses associated with their commandment (Deuteronomy.6:4-9, 11:13-21; Exodus 13:1-10, 13:11-16.). One is worn on the upper non-dominant arm. It is held in place by a strap with a special knot that is then wound seven times around the forearm and. The second one is worn on the forehead with its straps going around the back of the head to top of the neck where it too is tied with a specific knot. Tefillin were thought to be talismans of personal protection. There are several narratives about the miraculous protective qualities of Tefillin in the Talmud and Mishna(BT: Berakhot 23a-b, Shabbat 49a., Menahot 36b, 44a-b, Shabbat 13a-b, Kelim 23:1, Eruvin 10:1, and Eruvin 96b-97a.). A baby awakened during the night by evil spirits would have his father’s Tefillin placed with him or her to increase G-d’s peace and safety under the watchfulness of the angels whose names may have been invoked in an accompanying prayer or incantation. They would also be placed by a wife during childbirth to protect her from the Ayin Ha’ra. Tefillin did not evolve throughout the Middle Ages in Kabbalistic power the same way the Mezuzah did, but they have an incredibly rich story.

Interestingly, a rather different attitude regarding first-born children was found among the Jews of the Middle Ages. In most cultures the desire was for a first-born son, an heir; however, a first-born daughter was believed to prevent the Ayin Ha’ra from afflicting a family. According to Rabbi Chisda (BT Bava Batra 141a), "If the first child be a girl this is a good omen for the succeeding boys, because the Evil Eye is in that case not irritated." A first-born daughter omits the potential jealousy that a first-born son might engender, thereby not attracting the Ayin Ha’ra;  and one could always pray the next child be male, “bli Ayin Ha’ra.”

Reciting the K’riyat Shema (mentioned at the beginning of the Amulets and Talismans section) in its entirety or in part, once or repetitiously, may also serve as an incantation to defend against evil intent. In fact, reciting any verses from Torah or Talmud could be effective; however, some passages are credited with more efficaciousness than others under specific circumstances.

While the Aaronic Blessing and the Shema, as previously discussed,  were frequently used as text for amulets, they were also used as incantations against evil. 

Rituals to protect or defend against the Evil Eye are also found in Judaic practices of the Middle Ages. The Rosh Hashanah (New Year) Tashlich ritual was used at other times of the year to fight the Ayin Ha’ra. Tashlich comes from the Hebrew word meaning "to cast" and is a ritual act performed each new year when Jews cast away their sins into a body of flowing water, preferably one that contains fish because “fish are incapable of being affected by the Evil Eye.”(Eisenberg, 204, 585) This is why fish of various types can be found throughout history as talismans, amulets, and signs in Judaic art and literature. The Tashlich ritual is common to both Ashkenazi and Sephardic communities.

Spitting three times on one's fingertips and making a flicking movement toward the person who needs protection is another ritual to ward off the Evil Eye. According to Eisenberg (586-7), "Whether done literally or figuratively (by saying “pooh, pooh, pooh”), spitting three times (a mystical number) is a classic response to something exceptionally evil or good. For centuries, Jews have performed this ritual in response to seeing, hearing, or learning of something terrible and as a prophylactic measure to prevent such a tragedy from happening or recurring. Ironically, it is traditional to perform the same action in response to something wonderful—such as good news or the birth of a beautiful and healthy child—to ward off the Evil Eye. Spitting was long considered a potent protector against magic and demons. Ancient and medieval physicians, including Maimonides, described the positive values of saliva and spittle.”

Pooh!  Pooh!  Pooh!  Spitting, especially spitting 3 times, is a ritual almost as pervasive as the evil eye itself. Jews, Muslims, Turks, Irish, Scots, Africans (to name a few) all believe in the power of spit. 

Spitting is believed to overcome the evil consequences of admiration and is often used against the evil eye. 

A mother, whose child has been praised or looked at licks their head 3 times or kisses the child 3 times, spitting after each kiss against the evil eye.  Polish mothers will add the incantation, ““Neither mountain nor forest, nor barley nor oats.” (Abu-Rabia)

The saliva of a man cures men, while that of a woman cures women; similarly, a boy’s saliva cures boys and a girl’s cures girls.  (Abu-Rabia)

Scattering salt into the corners of rooms or carrying small amounts of it in the corners or in the pockets of your clothing, piercing a lemon with iron nails, hanging a precious gem between the eyes of the targeted animal or person, placing bowls of water near sleeping areas at night, were rituals meant to bar, blind, distract, or capture the evil spirits intent on doing the work of the Ayin Ha’ra.(Eisenberg)

The belief in the Evil Eye crosses many geographic, cultural, and religious borders from ancient to modern times. Its power has a long history and an equally long list of ways to guard against its power. Jewish literature and archeological finds support a well-established belief during the Middle Ages of the power of the Ayin Ha’ra as well as providing a wealth of information regarding how to prevent or defend against it. “An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure” is very much a truism when it comes to the Medieval Jewish attitude toward the Ayin Ha’ra. Humility seems a worthy goal and a small price to pay especially if it provides safety, health, happiness, and prosperity all about which one has the opportunity to be humble. Should humility be beyond your reach because, kein Ayin Ha’ra, you are such an amazing human being (“pooh, pooh, pooh”), have no fear, for there are many amulets, talismans, incantations, and rituals available to ward off the Ayin Ha’ra or to repair its effects. As Sannazaro tells us, “...ché al mondo mal non è senza rimedio – There is no evil in the world without a remedy.”